ABSTRACT
This study is on the influence of learning on consumer behaviour and its implications for marketing practice. The methodological approach involved extensive literature review that revealed the various models of learning and their influences
on consumer behaviour and marketing implications. It is therefore our conclusion that learning is not only important but imperative in consumer behaviour modeling and in the successful practice of marketing.
Keywords: Consumer Behaviour, Model, Learning, Marketing Implication.
INTRODUCTION
It is trite to say that a thorough understanding of the consumer, his wants, preferences, perceptions and deprivations, is the beginning of organizational wisdom. The understanding of the market and character of demand is very essential for the success of corporate governance. This is so because of consumer dynamics and oftentimes unpredictable buying disposition. Berkmanet al (1997) accordingly asked the following questions: What is it that makes buyers buy? What makes them select one product over another that satisfies the same needs, or one brand over another almost identical brands? What makes a longtime user of one brand suddenly switch to another? And what keeps other brand users loyal, despite overtures from competing brands? The answers to these questions are central to the study of consumer behaviour and justify the development of consumer decision models that attempt to describe the processes consumer go through before, during and after making a purchase.
Consumer behaviour models help us to understand the consumer in his varied contexts and perspectives. Schiffmanet al (1994) suggest that consumer behaviour has to do with the behaviour consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs; it is a study of how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources (time, money, efforts) on consumption related items. In coming to terms with consumer behaviour contexts and perspectives, models provide us with a framework for analyzing consumer behaviour antecedents or causes and each of its results or consequences (Berman, 1997). Several consumer behaviour models exist, for instance, the Howard-Sheth model, the Nicosia model, the Engel, Kollat and Blackwell model, etc. These models are characterized essentially by three sections viz; the input section, the information processing and decision section and the output section. See fig. 1, a simple model of consumer decision making.
Besides the input and output sections, the study is focused on the process section, which is responsible for information filtering and processing. This section is represented by the psychological field that finds expression through motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitude. However, the influence of learning which starts from birth seem to be predominant and our main research interest. The information and occurrences that predicate learning come from the input section.
Fig. 1: A simple model of consumer decision making
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk, L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J, USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
The input section receives stimuli from both the organization (firm’s marketing efforts notably product, price, place and promotion) and sociocultural environments (family, informal sources, social class etc). The information processing and decision section is made up of need or problem recognition, prepurchase search, evaluation of alternatives and choice or purchase. It is however noteworthy that before the decision to choose one product over another is made, the psychological field impacts and moderates the decision making component of the process. The psychological field as stated earlier is made up of motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitudes which are dimensions of one’s experience. The output section consists of outcomes of the dimension process, as purchase and postpurchase evaluation. The purchase behaviour is either a trial purchase or repeat purchase which is important for the success of marketing practice. The postpurchase evaluation consists of three possible outcomes: Actual performance matches expectations leading to neutral feelings; performance is above expectations, causing positive disconfirmation and Performance is below expectations, causing negative disconfirmation and dissatisfaction (Cadotteet al, 1987). For each of these three outcomes, consumers’ expectations and satisfaction are loosely linked – that is, consumers tend to judge their experience against their expectations when performing a postpurchase evaluation. The attendant concern to us here is the influence of experience, as represented by the psychological field (motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitudes) on the decision process particularly learning. Has learning any significant role in this process? And what are the implications for marketing practice?
Literary Perspectives
Learning belongs to the cognitive-behavioural perspective of consumer behaviour. Behavioural theory has been used to describe low involvement cases where consumers put little thought into decision making and the cost of “poor” decision (Rothschild and Aslin, 1987; Nord and Peter, 1980). The term “cognitive-behavioural perspective” reflects recent attempt, primarily from clinical psychology, to integrate cognitive and behavioural views. Mahoney (1977) has suggested that the following propositions characterize the perspective that; the human organism responds primarily to
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
cognitive representations of its environment rather than to those environments per se; these cognitive representations are functionally related to the processes and parameters of learning; most human learning is cognitively mediated; thoughts, feelings and behaviours are casually interactive.
Learning is a behavioural modification that occurs through experience or conditioning. According to the behavioural learning theory, learning occurs from exposure to external stimuli such as advertising, and according to cognitive learning theory, consumer learning takes place by a process of internal knowledge transfer (Icmrindia, 2010). However it is difficult to proffer a generally acceptable definition of learning, since learning theorists do not agree on how learning takes place. From a marketing perspective, though consumer learning is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience they apply to future related behaviour (Shiffman and Kanuk, 1994). This definition suggests that: consumer learning is a process; it results from acquired knowledge or experience; much of learning is intentional, anda great deal of learning is also incidental; the term learning encompasses the total range of learning, from simple almost reflexive responses to learning of abstract concepts and complex problem solving.
Despite varying theoretical viewpoints about learning, there is a consensus amongst theorists that in order for learning to occur, there are basic elements which must be present, such as motivation, cues, response, and reinforcement. Motivation acts as a spur to learning with needs and goals serving as stimuli; If motives serve to stimulate learning, cues are the stimuli that give direction to those motives e.g. an advertisement may for a tennis camp serve as a cue for tennis buffs; how individuals react to a drive or cue – how they behave constitutes their response; reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the result of particular cues or stimuli (Schiffmanet al, 1994).
Theories of Learning
Theories of learning or behavioural learning theories are sometimes called stimulus-response theories because they are based on the premise that observable responses to external stimuli signal that learning has taken place. We have cognitive theory and two behavioural theories of learning that exist which are of great relevance to marketing. The behavioural theories are: Classical conditioning and Instrumental or operant conditioning. Conditioning has come to be associated with automatic response to a situation built up through repeated exposure. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was the first to describe conditioning and to propose it as a general model of how learning occurs. According to Pavlovian theory, conditioned learning results when a stimulus that is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the same response when used alone. In experimental terms, if an unconditioned stimulus (US) results in an unconditioned response (UR), then the conditioned stimulus (CS) after repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, will result in the same response, which is now called a conditioned response (CR). Pavlov demonstrated his experiments with dogs. The dogs were hungry and highly motivated to eat. In his experiment, Pavlov sounded a bell and then immediately applied a meat paste to the dogs’ tongues, which caused them to salivate. Learning (i.e. conditioning) occurred when, after a sufficient number of repetitions of the bell sound, followed almost immediately by the food, the bell alone caused the dogs to salivate. The dogs associated the bell (CS) with the meat paste (the US) as after some pairings, gave the same response (salivation) to the bell alone. See fig. 2.
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Figure 2: Model of classical Conditioning
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Nascent classical conditioning theorists see inadequacy in the character of the circumstances that produce conditioned learning, the content of the learning and the manner in which that learning influences behaviour. They view the classical conditioning as the learning of associations among events that allow the organism to anticipate and “represent” its environment (Rescorla, 1988). Thus, rather than being a reflexive, it is seen as cognitive associative learning: not the acquisition of new reflexes, but about the organization of new knowledge about the world (Mackintosh, 1983). Under Neo-Pavlovian theory, the consumer can be viewed as an information seeker who uses logical and perceptual relations among events, along with his or her own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world (Shim, 1991). Conditioning is the learning that results from exposure to relationships among events in the environment, such exposure creates expectations as to the structure of the environment. Three basic concepts derived from classical conditioning are: Repetition (which increases the strength of the association and slows the process of forgetfulness), Stimulus generation (ability of individuals to generalize), and stimulus discrimination (which is the ability to discriminate among stimuli – it serves to establish a unique image for a brand in the customer’s mind).
Instrumental or operant conditioning: Instrumental (operant) conditioning is traced to the pioneering work of an American psychologist, B.F. Skinner, It is a process in which the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behaviour is modified by the consequences of the behaviour (Austin and Johnson, 1974). Much of consumer behaviour results from operant conditioning. In consumer behaviour terms, instrumental conditioning suggests that consumer learn by means of a trial-and-error process in which some purchase behaviours result in more favourable outcomes (i.e. rewards) than other purchase behaviours. A favourable experience is instrumental in teaching the individual to repeat a specific consumption behaviour (Schiffmanet al, 1994). Skinner, like Pavlov, developed his model by working with animals. Such animals as rats and pigeons were placed in his “Skinner box”, if they made appropriate movements (e.g. depressed lavers or pecked keys), they received food (a positive reinforcement). The instrumental conditioning model is built around two concepts which Skinner called Positive Reinforcement that consists of events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific response, e.g. using a shampoo that leaves your hair feeling silky and clean is likely to result in the repetition of the shampoo purchase. Negative Reinforcement which is an unpleasant or negative outcome that also serves to encourage a specific behaviour, e.g. an ad that shows a pickpocket stealing a vacationer’s wallet is likely to encourage consumers to buy travelers’ checks. This concept should not be confused with punishment, which is designed to discourage behaviour. For example, packing tickets are not negative reinforcement; they are a form of “punishment” designed to discourage drivers from parking illegally (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Another example of negative reinforcement is adverts that warn husbands that in the event of sudden death
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
their wives will be left penniless widows. This ad encourages the purchase of life insurance policy. However, this position is not shared totally by Berkmanet al (1997) as they suggest “that what distinguishes operant conditioning from classical conditioning is the principle of reward and punishment – in operant conditioning, a specific behaviour results in a specific consequence. Behaviour modification is reinforced or rewarded by a positive consequence and punished by a negative one.
Another concept in learning is massed or distributed learning which dwells on timing. Where a learning schedule is spread out over a period of time, it is called distributed, which results in learning that last longer. In Massed, the learning schedule is “bunched up” all at once and it is used for immediate impact (e.g. to introduce a new product or to counter a competitor’s blitz campaign. See fig. 3 for instrumental conditioning.
Figure 3: A model of instrumental conditioning
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Cognitive Learning Theory
The belief that learning is a function of thinking, of mental processes, is known as cognitive theory (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Instrumental theorists, argue that children learn in this way (instrumental conditioning) because they can envision a reward and therefore imitate the behaviour that leads to it. However critics maintain that instrumentalist confuse learning and performance (behaviour). Both children and adults learn a great deal that they do not act upon. Moreover, they may learn merely for the sake of learning, not for the sake of rewards. This learning method is cognitive. It is learning based on mental activity. Unlike behavioural learning theory, cognitive theory holds that learning involves complex mental processing of information. Instead of stressing the importance of repetition or the association of rewards with a specific response, cognitive theorists emphasize the role of motivation and mental processes in producing a derived response. Information processing methods have been well treated in models of consumer decision making and behaviour. However fig. 4 highlights the steps in information processing involved in cognitive learning.
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Fig. 4: Information Processing and Memory Stores
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Information overload occurs when the consumers have too much information and may encounter difficulty encoding and storing it all. If too much information is given in a limited time, consumers can become cognitively overloaded. Key words in connection with cognitive theory are: Retention (ability to store information for a long term); Activation (ability to relate new data to old data in order to make material meaningful); Schema (total package of associations brought to mind when a cue is activated); Episodic (storing information by the order in which it is acquired); Semantic (process by which we recover information from long term storage).
Involvement Theory
Involvement theory is developed from a stream of research called Hemispheral Lateralization, or Split-brain theory. The basic premise is that the right and left hemisphere of the brain “specialize” in the kind of information they process. The left hemisphere is responsible for cognitive activities such as reading, speaking, and attributional information processing. The right hemisphere of the brain is concerned with nonverbal, timeless, pictorial, and holistic information (Hansen, 1981; Lindzayet al, 1977 and Wittrock, 1977). Put differently, the left side of the brain is supposed to be rational, active, realistic while the right is emotional metaphoric, impulsive and intuitive. There are five types of involvement – ego involvement, commitment, communication involvement, purchase importance and response involvement.
Marketing Implications
Learning and consumer involvement is of great interest to marketers. Consumer learning is a process, which continuously evolves and changes as a result of newly acquired knowledge. It is very important to marketing practitioners. Marketing strategies are based on communicating with the consumer – directly through advertisements and indirectly through product appearance, pricing, packaging and distribution channels. Marketers want their communications to be noted, believed, remembered and recalled. For these reasons, they are interested in every aspect of the learning process (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Three basic learning theories exist and each has implications for marketing practice, as they intervene and moderate consumer purchase behaviour.
Classical Conditioning: The principle of classical conditioning provides the theoretical underpinnings for many marketing applications. Repetition, stimulus generation and stimulus discrimination are useful concepts in examining how consumers learn to behave in the marketplace. Our assessment of products is often based on the rewards we experience as the result of making specific purchases, in other words, from instrumental conditioning. According to Skinner (1966) behaviour is reinforced or punished until it approximates more and more closely to the response ultimately desired. A form of consumer shaping popular among marketers is the offer of free or reduced-price trials, e.g. in subscription rates, etc; Instrumental Conditioning believes that learning occurs by trial-and-error process and habits formed as a result of repeated rewards received from certain responses or behaviour. This model applies to many situations in which consumers learn about products, services and stores. While classical conditioning is useful in explaining how consumers learn very simple kinds of behaviours, instrumental conditioning is more helpful in explaining complex, goal-directed
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
activities; Cognitive Theory application is pervasive in marketing practice since it has to do with the mental processes the individual consumer undergoes before a purchase decision is made. Cognitive theory emphasizes the role of motivation and mental process in producing a desired response. In it, both environmental and marketing factors act as input into information processing unit. Most marketing activities and functions including products, price, promotion, distribution, etc are tailored to trigger on the cognitive process of learning which when it occurs feeds back on experience for future use as shown in fig. 5.
Fig. 5: A Model of Learning from Experience
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
CONCLUSION
The essence of production is to achieve consumption purposes i.e. if there is no consumption, there will be no production. Therefore, to consummate production goals, marketing wise, consumers will not only be identified but also properly understood. Understanding the consumer implies having a profound insight into his needs and wants, preferences and perceptions, motives and deprivations and most importantly the other reasons for his market or purchase behaviour. Several models have been developed to explain consumer behaviour which in the least, appear mercurial and dynamic. In explaining the antecedents or causes as well as the results or consequences of consumer behaviour, these models are characterized by input, processing and out/outcome sections. Learning is a component in the psychological field of the information processing section of the model. Learning, which is a behaviour modification that occurs through experience or conditioning, is a very important phenomenon in marketing practice. Several learning models exist, such as classical, instrumental conditioning, cognitive, involvement etc. The implications of these models for marketing practice are enormous. In view of the importance of learning to effective marketing practice as evidenced in the literature, we conclude by noting the importance and imperative of a thorough study and understanding of learning in its varied dimensions especially regarding its implications for the success of marketing practice.
REFERENCES
Austin, D.S .and Johnson, M.J. (1974).Explaining Behaviour. ENUNO, CA: Dickenson.
Berkman, W.H; Lindquist, D.J. and Sugy, J.M. (1997).Consumer Behaviour.U.S.A., NTC Business Books.
Cadotte, R.E; Woodruff, B.R. and Jenkins, L.R. (1987).Expectations and Norms in Models of Consumer Satisfaction.Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 305-14.
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
Hensen, F. (1981).Hemispheral Lateralization: Implications for Understanding Consumer Behaviour. Journal of Marketing Research, 20, 23-36.
Hoyer, D.W. and MacInnis, J.D. (1997).Consumer Behaviour.New York, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Icmrindia (2010).An Introduction to a Cognitive-Behavioural Perspective of Consumer Behaviour.http://www.icmrindia-org/courseware/consumer2behavior/CBC06.htm(2010). Retrieved 05/10/2010.
Lindzay, H.P. and Norman, D. (1977).Human Information Processing. NY, Academic Press.
Mackintosh, N.J. (1983).Conditioning and Associative Learning. NY: Oxford University Press.
Mahoney, L. (1977). Reflections on the Cognitive-Learning Trend in Psychotherapy.AmericanPsychologist, 32, 5-13.
Nord, R.W; and Peter, P.J. (1980).A Classification and Extension of Operant Conditioning Principles in Marketing.Journal of Marketing 46, 102-7.
Rescorla, R.A. (1988). PavlovianConditioning, It’s not what you think it is. AmericanPsychologist 43(3) 151-60.
Rothschild, M.L. and Aslin, T.M. (1987).An Introduction to a Cognitive-Behavioural Perspective of Consumer Behaviourin Advancesin Consumer Research; Melanie W. and Paul, A. (eds) 14 566-575.
Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk, L.L. (1994).Consumer Behaviour.N.J., USA, Eaglewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall Inc.
Shimp, T.A. (1991). Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning and its Implications for Consumer Theory and Research in Thomas, S.B. and Harold, H.K. (eds) Handbook of Consumer Behaviour, NY Prentice Hall Inc.
Wittrock, C.M. (1977). The Human Brain.Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall.
This study is on the influence of learning on consumer behaviour and its implications for marketing practice. The methodological approach involved extensive literature review that revealed the various models of learning and their influences
on consumer behaviour and marketing implications. It is therefore our conclusion that learning is not only important but imperative in consumer behaviour modeling and in the successful practice of marketing.
Keywords: Consumer Behaviour, Model, Learning, Marketing Implication.
INTRODUCTION
It is trite to say that a thorough understanding of the consumer, his wants, preferences, perceptions and deprivations, is the beginning of organizational wisdom. The understanding of the market and character of demand is very essential for the success of corporate governance. This is so because of consumer dynamics and oftentimes unpredictable buying disposition. Berkmanet al (1997) accordingly asked the following questions: What is it that makes buyers buy? What makes them select one product over another that satisfies the same needs, or one brand over another almost identical brands? What makes a longtime user of one brand suddenly switch to another? And what keeps other brand users loyal, despite overtures from competing brands? The answers to these questions are central to the study of consumer behaviour and justify the development of consumer decision models that attempt to describe the processes consumer go through before, during and after making a purchase.
Consumer behaviour models help us to understand the consumer in his varied contexts and perspectives. Schiffmanet al (1994) suggest that consumer behaviour has to do with the behaviour consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs; it is a study of how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources (time, money, efforts) on consumption related items. In coming to terms with consumer behaviour contexts and perspectives, models provide us with a framework for analyzing consumer behaviour antecedents or causes and each of its results or consequences (Berman, 1997). Several consumer behaviour models exist, for instance, the Howard-Sheth model, the Nicosia model, the Engel, Kollat and Blackwell model, etc. These models are characterized essentially by three sections viz; the input section, the information processing and decision section and the output section. See fig. 1, a simple model of consumer decision making.
Besides the input and output sections, the study is focused on the process section, which is responsible for information filtering and processing. This section is represented by the psychological field that finds expression through motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitude. However, the influence of learning which starts from birth seem to be predominant and our main research interest. The information and occurrences that predicate learning come from the input section.
Fig. 1: A simple model of consumer decision making
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk, L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J, USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
The input section receives stimuli from both the organization (firm’s marketing efforts notably product, price, place and promotion) and sociocultural environments (family, informal sources, social class etc). The information processing and decision section is made up of need or problem recognition, prepurchase search, evaluation of alternatives and choice or purchase. It is however noteworthy that before the decision to choose one product over another is made, the psychological field impacts and moderates the decision making component of the process. The psychological field as stated earlier is made up of motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitudes which are dimensions of one’s experience. The output section consists of outcomes of the dimension process, as purchase and postpurchase evaluation. The purchase behaviour is either a trial purchase or repeat purchase which is important for the success of marketing practice. The postpurchase evaluation consists of three possible outcomes: Actual performance matches expectations leading to neutral feelings; performance is above expectations, causing positive disconfirmation and Performance is below expectations, causing negative disconfirmation and dissatisfaction (Cadotteet al, 1987). For each of these three outcomes, consumers’ expectations and satisfaction are loosely linked – that is, consumers tend to judge their experience against their expectations when performing a postpurchase evaluation. The attendant concern to us here is the influence of experience, as represented by the psychological field (motivation, perception, learning, personality and attitudes) on the decision process particularly learning. Has learning any significant role in this process? And what are the implications for marketing practice?
Literary Perspectives
Learning belongs to the cognitive-behavioural perspective of consumer behaviour. Behavioural theory has been used to describe low involvement cases where consumers put little thought into decision making and the cost of “poor” decision (Rothschild and Aslin, 1987; Nord and Peter, 1980). The term “cognitive-behavioural perspective” reflects recent attempt, primarily from clinical psychology, to integrate cognitive and behavioural views. Mahoney (1977) has suggested that the following propositions characterize the perspective that; the human organism responds primarily to
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
cognitive representations of its environment rather than to those environments per se; these cognitive representations are functionally related to the processes and parameters of learning; most human learning is cognitively mediated; thoughts, feelings and behaviours are casually interactive.
Learning is a behavioural modification that occurs through experience or conditioning. According to the behavioural learning theory, learning occurs from exposure to external stimuli such as advertising, and according to cognitive learning theory, consumer learning takes place by a process of internal knowledge transfer (Icmrindia, 2010). However it is difficult to proffer a generally acceptable definition of learning, since learning theorists do not agree on how learning takes place. From a marketing perspective, though consumer learning is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience they apply to future related behaviour (Shiffman and Kanuk, 1994). This definition suggests that: consumer learning is a process; it results from acquired knowledge or experience; much of learning is intentional, anda great deal of learning is also incidental; the term learning encompasses the total range of learning, from simple almost reflexive responses to learning of abstract concepts and complex problem solving.
Despite varying theoretical viewpoints about learning, there is a consensus amongst theorists that in order for learning to occur, there are basic elements which must be present, such as motivation, cues, response, and reinforcement. Motivation acts as a spur to learning with needs and goals serving as stimuli; If motives serve to stimulate learning, cues are the stimuli that give direction to those motives e.g. an advertisement may for a tennis camp serve as a cue for tennis buffs; how individuals react to a drive or cue – how they behave constitutes their response; reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the result of particular cues or stimuli (Schiffmanet al, 1994).
Theories of Learning
Theories of learning or behavioural learning theories are sometimes called stimulus-response theories because they are based on the premise that observable responses to external stimuli signal that learning has taken place. We have cognitive theory and two behavioural theories of learning that exist which are of great relevance to marketing. The behavioural theories are: Classical conditioning and Instrumental or operant conditioning. Conditioning has come to be associated with automatic response to a situation built up through repeated exposure. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was the first to describe conditioning and to propose it as a general model of how learning occurs. According to Pavlovian theory, conditioned learning results when a stimulus that is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response serves to produce the same response when used alone. In experimental terms, if an unconditioned stimulus (US) results in an unconditioned response (UR), then the conditioned stimulus (CS) after repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, will result in the same response, which is now called a conditioned response (CR). Pavlov demonstrated his experiments with dogs. The dogs were hungry and highly motivated to eat. In his experiment, Pavlov sounded a bell and then immediately applied a meat paste to the dogs’ tongues, which caused them to salivate. Learning (i.e. conditioning) occurred when, after a sufficient number of repetitions of the bell sound, followed almost immediately by the food, the bell alone caused the dogs to salivate. The dogs associated the bell (CS) with the meat paste (the US) as after some pairings, gave the same response (salivation) to the bell alone. See fig. 2.
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Figure 2: Model of classical Conditioning
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Nascent classical conditioning theorists see inadequacy in the character of the circumstances that produce conditioned learning, the content of the learning and the manner in which that learning influences behaviour. They view the classical conditioning as the learning of associations among events that allow the organism to anticipate and “represent” its environment (Rescorla, 1988). Thus, rather than being a reflexive, it is seen as cognitive associative learning: not the acquisition of new reflexes, but about the organization of new knowledge about the world (Mackintosh, 1983). Under Neo-Pavlovian theory, the consumer can be viewed as an information seeker who uses logical and perceptual relations among events, along with his or her own preconceptions, to form a sophisticated representation of the world (Shim, 1991). Conditioning is the learning that results from exposure to relationships among events in the environment, such exposure creates expectations as to the structure of the environment. Three basic concepts derived from classical conditioning are: Repetition (which increases the strength of the association and slows the process of forgetfulness), Stimulus generation (ability of individuals to generalize), and stimulus discrimination (which is the ability to discriminate among stimuli – it serves to establish a unique image for a brand in the customer’s mind).
Instrumental or operant conditioning: Instrumental (operant) conditioning is traced to the pioneering work of an American psychologist, B.F. Skinner, It is a process in which the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behaviour is modified by the consequences of the behaviour (Austin and Johnson, 1974). Much of consumer behaviour results from operant conditioning. In consumer behaviour terms, instrumental conditioning suggests that consumer learn by means of a trial-and-error process in which some purchase behaviours result in more favourable outcomes (i.e. rewards) than other purchase behaviours. A favourable experience is instrumental in teaching the individual to repeat a specific consumption behaviour (Schiffmanet al, 1994). Skinner, like Pavlov, developed his model by working with animals. Such animals as rats and pigeons were placed in his “Skinner box”, if they made appropriate movements (e.g. depressed lavers or pecked keys), they received food (a positive reinforcement). The instrumental conditioning model is built around two concepts which Skinner called Positive Reinforcement that consists of events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific response, e.g. using a shampoo that leaves your hair feeling silky and clean is likely to result in the repetition of the shampoo purchase. Negative Reinforcement which is an unpleasant or negative outcome that also serves to encourage a specific behaviour, e.g. an ad that shows a pickpocket stealing a vacationer’s wallet is likely to encourage consumers to buy travelers’ checks. This concept should not be confused with punishment, which is designed to discourage behaviour. For example, packing tickets are not negative reinforcement; they are a form of “punishment” designed to discourage drivers from parking illegally (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Another example of negative reinforcement is adverts that warn husbands that in the event of sudden death
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
their wives will be left penniless widows. This ad encourages the purchase of life insurance policy. However, this position is not shared totally by Berkmanet al (1997) as they suggest “that what distinguishes operant conditioning from classical conditioning is the principle of reward and punishment – in operant conditioning, a specific behaviour results in a specific consequence. Behaviour modification is reinforced or rewarded by a positive consequence and punished by a negative one.
Another concept in learning is massed or distributed learning which dwells on timing. Where a learning schedule is spread out over a period of time, it is called distributed, which results in learning that last longer. In Massed, the learning schedule is “bunched up” all at once and it is used for immediate impact (e.g. to introduce a new product or to counter a competitor’s blitz campaign. See fig. 3 for instrumental conditioning.
Figure 3: A model of instrumental conditioning
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Cognitive Learning Theory
The belief that learning is a function of thinking, of mental processes, is known as cognitive theory (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Instrumental theorists, argue that children learn in this way (instrumental conditioning) because they can envision a reward and therefore imitate the behaviour that leads to it. However critics maintain that instrumentalist confuse learning and performance (behaviour). Both children and adults learn a great deal that they do not act upon. Moreover, they may learn merely for the sake of learning, not for the sake of rewards. This learning method is cognitive. It is learning based on mental activity. Unlike behavioural learning theory, cognitive theory holds that learning involves complex mental processing of information. Instead of stressing the importance of repetition or the association of rewards with a specific response, cognitive theorists emphasize the role of motivation and mental processes in producing a derived response. Information processing methods have been well treated in models of consumer decision making and behaviour. However fig. 4 highlights the steps in information processing involved in cognitive learning.
African Journal of Innovations in Management Science and Administration Volume 6, Number 1, 2017
Fig. 4: Information Processing and Memory Stores
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
Information overload occurs when the consumers have too much information and may encounter difficulty encoding and storing it all. If too much information is given in a limited time, consumers can become cognitively overloaded. Key words in connection with cognitive theory are: Retention (ability to store information for a long term); Activation (ability to relate new data to old data in order to make material meaningful); Schema (total package of associations brought to mind when a cue is activated); Episodic (storing information by the order in which it is acquired); Semantic (process by which we recover information from long term storage).
Involvement Theory
Involvement theory is developed from a stream of research called Hemispheral Lateralization, or Split-brain theory. The basic premise is that the right and left hemisphere of the brain “specialize” in the kind of information they process. The left hemisphere is responsible for cognitive activities such as reading, speaking, and attributional information processing. The right hemisphere of the brain is concerned with nonverbal, timeless, pictorial, and holistic information (Hansen, 1981; Lindzayet al, 1977 and Wittrock, 1977). Put differently, the left side of the brain is supposed to be rational, active, realistic while the right is emotional metaphoric, impulsive and intuitive. There are five types of involvement – ego involvement, commitment, communication involvement, purchase importance and response involvement.
Marketing Implications
Learning and consumer involvement is of great interest to marketers. Consumer learning is a process, which continuously evolves and changes as a result of newly acquired knowledge. It is very important to marketing practitioners. Marketing strategies are based on communicating with the consumer – directly through advertisements and indirectly through product appearance, pricing, packaging and distribution channels. Marketers want their communications to be noted, believed, remembered and recalled. For these reasons, they are interested in every aspect of the learning process (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1994). Three basic learning theories exist and each has implications for marketing practice, as they intervene and moderate consumer purchase behaviour.
Classical Conditioning: The principle of classical conditioning provides the theoretical underpinnings for many marketing applications. Repetition, stimulus generation and stimulus discrimination are useful concepts in examining how consumers learn to behave in the marketplace. Our assessment of products is often based on the rewards we experience as the result of making specific purchases, in other words, from instrumental conditioning. According to Skinner (1966) behaviour is reinforced or punished until it approximates more and more closely to the response ultimately desired. A form of consumer shaping popular among marketers is the offer of free or reduced-price trials, e.g. in subscription rates, etc; Instrumental Conditioning believes that learning occurs by trial-and-error process and habits formed as a result of repeated rewards received from certain responses or behaviour. This model applies to many situations in which consumers learn about products, services and stores. While classical conditioning is useful in explaining how consumers learn very simple kinds of behaviours, instrumental conditioning is more helpful in explaining complex, goal-directed
Evaluation of the Influence of Learning on Consumer Didia, J.U.D. and Harcourt, H.
Behaviour and the Implications for Marketing Practice
activities; Cognitive Theory application is pervasive in marketing practice since it has to do with the mental processes the individual consumer undergoes before a purchase decision is made. Cognitive theory emphasizes the role of motivation and mental process in producing a desired response. In it, both environmental and marketing factors act as input into information processing unit. Most marketing activities and functions including products, price, promotion, distribution, etc are tailored to trigger on the cognitive process of learning which when it occurs feeds back on experience for future use as shown in fig. 5.
Fig. 5: A Model of Learning from Experience
Source: Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk L.L. (1994). Consumer Behaviour. N.J. USA Eaglewood Cliff, Prentice Hall Inc.
CONCLUSION
The essence of production is to achieve consumption purposes i.e. if there is no consumption, there will be no production. Therefore, to consummate production goals, marketing wise, consumers will not only be identified but also properly understood. Understanding the consumer implies having a profound insight into his needs and wants, preferences and perceptions, motives and deprivations and most importantly the other reasons for his market or purchase behaviour. Several models have been developed to explain consumer behaviour which in the least, appear mercurial and dynamic. In explaining the antecedents or causes as well as the results or consequences of consumer behaviour, these models are characterized by input, processing and out/outcome sections. Learning is a component in the psychological field of the information processing section of the model. Learning, which is a behaviour modification that occurs through experience or conditioning, is a very important phenomenon in marketing practice. Several learning models exist, such as classical, instrumental conditioning, cognitive, involvement etc. The implications of these models for marketing practice are enormous. In view of the importance of learning to effective marketing practice as evidenced in the literature, we conclude by noting the importance and imperative of a thorough study and understanding of learning in its varied dimensions especially regarding its implications for the success of marketing practice.
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